The Battle of Culloden: The Final Chapter of the Jacobite Rebellion

The Battle of Culloden stands as one of the most decisive and tragic events in Scottish history, marking the end of the Jacobite Rebellion and forever changing the Highlands. Fought in 1746, this brutal conflict not only shattered the Jacobite cause but also led to lasting cultural and political consequences for Scotland. In this article, we explore the Battle of Culloden , the events that led to it, the key figures involved, and why its legacy continues to shape Scottish identity today.

The Battle of Culloden was the decisive final clash of the Jacobite Rising of 1745– 1746, fought on April 16, 1746, on the moorland of Culloden (Drummossie Moor), near Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. It pitted the Jacobite army loyal to Charles Edward Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) against the British government forces led by the Duke of Cumberland , acting on behalf of the Hanoverian monarchy.

Often described as the last pitched battle fought on the British mainland, Culloden ended in a swift and decisive government victory. The defeat effectively brought the Jacobite campaign to restore the Stuart dynasty to a close, making Culloden a turning point in Scottish and British history. In the battle's aftermath, the government moved quickly to suppress further rebellion, and the Highlands experienced long-lasting political and social consequences—one reason Culloden still resonates as a symbol of loss, identity, and change in Scotland.

Although the invasion did not yield significant outcomes, it enhanced recruitment efforts, increasing the Jacobite army's size to over 8,000. These soldiers, supported by artillery from France, laid siege to Stirling Castle, which was crucial to the Scottish Highlands.

• 17 January 1746 – The Jacobites successfully defended against a government force led by Henry Hawley at the Battle of Falkirk Muir, though the siege of Stirling Castle itself made limited headway. Shortly thereafter, Cumberland took command in Edinburgh, replacing Hawley.

• 1 February 1746 – The Jacobite forces decided to abandon the siege and retreated to Inverness.

• 27 February 1746 – Cumberland's army entered Aberdeen, and both factions paused their activities until weather conditions improved.

Despite receiving several supplies from France during the winter, the Royal Navy blockade left the Jacobites in need of funds and provisions. When Cumberland departed from Aberdeen on April 8 to continue the campaign, Charles and his top advisers determined that their best strategy was to risk a decisive battle.

The Battle of Culloden began with a disastrous decision made the night before. On April 15, 1746, the Jacobite army attempted a surprise night march to strike the Duke of Cumberland's government camp near Nairn. But the plan collapsed as men fell behind in their search for food, the columns were delayed, and commanders realized they would not reach the target before daylight. The exhausted Highlanders turned back toward Inverness and Drummossie Moor, arriving worn out and poorly fed just hours before Cumberland's army advanced to meet them.

By the morning of April 16, Jacobite leaders argued for withdrawing to firmer ground south of the River Nairn, but Charles Edward Stuart chose to stand and fight on the open moor at Culloden. The army struggled into position while many soldiers were still missing or scattered, looking for supplies. When Cumberland's forces came into view, both sides formed their lines under miserable conditions, with the Jacobites already weakened by fatigue from the failed night action.

Fighting officially began around 1 pm, when Jacobite guns opened fire. Government artillery answered immediately, escalating into a sustained bombardment that pinned the Jacobite line in place and set the stage for the ill-fated Highland charge that followed. This artillery exchange is widely treated as the moment the Battle of Culloden truly "began" on the field.

This mattered because Cumberland's guns could pound the Jacobite front at range before any charge could properly close the distance. The Jacobites also had artillery, but they were outgunned and forced to hold ground while under bombardment, which increased disorder and casualties even before the main engagement. Terrain details also shaped each flank.

Parts of the moor were soft and boggy, disrupting movement and making coordination harder for the Jacobite line, especially when units tried to advance across uneven ground. Modern battlefield interpretation and official site records emphasize that the key actions unfolded across this landscape context, where troop movements, firing positions, and the main killing ground can be traced within the designated battlefield area.

After the failure of the night attack at Nairn , the Jacobite army formed up on the morning of April 16, 1746, in largely the same battle order as the previous day. The Highland regiments made up the first line, facing north-east across open grazing land, with the River Nairn approximately one kilometre to their right.

The Jacobite left wing was anchored against the walls of Culloden Park, while the Culwhiniac enclosure walls protected the right. Behind the front line stood the Lowland regiments, deployed according to French military practice.

During the early hours of the morning, heavy snow and rain saturated the already boggy ground of Drummossie Moor, significantly disadvantaging the Jacobite army, whose tactics relied on speed and momentum. Although the weather cleared shortly before the battle began, the soft and uneven terrain remained a significant factor throughout the engagement.

The government army under William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, left its encampment at around 5 am, advancing across open country rather than following the main Inverness road. By approximately 10 am, the Jacobites sighted the approaching government forces at a distance of about four kilometres.

When the army was roughly three kilometres from the Jacobite position, Cumberland ordered his troops to form line and advance in complete battle order. Contemporary accounts record that the Jacobite soldiers shouted insults as the government army approached, but received no response. Once within 500 metres, Cumberland brought his artillery forward through the ranks, preparing for an opening bombardment.

As the government line formed, Cumberland reinforced his right flank, which appeared vulnerable. On the Jacobite side, commanders redeployed units to guard against a possible flank attack, unintentionally skewing their line and weakening their reserves.

At approximately 1 pm, the Jacobite artillery under Finlayson opened fire, possibly in response to Cumberland sending Lord Bury forward to assess their gun strength at close range. Government artillery replied shortly afterwards.

Accounts differ on the length of the bombardment, ranging from two to nine minutes, though later analysis suggests it was brief and caused limited casualties at this stage. Shortly after 1 pm, Charles Edward Stuart issued the order for the Jacobite advance.

As the Highland regiments moved forward, government gunners switched to canister shot, supported by Coehorn mortars positioned behind the front line. The rate of fire increased dramatically, subjecting the advancing Jacobites to intense close-range artillery and musket fire as they crossed the open moor.

On the Jacobite right, several Highland regiments charged toward the government left and briefly reached the enemy lines. However, uneven ground, heavy fire, and confusion caused units to bunch together into a single mass. The loss of several senior officers at the front of the advance severely disrupted command and coordination.

Archaeological discoveries made in 2024, including large quantities of musket balls and grapeshot recovered near the former government front line, confirm the intensity of the close-range fighting. The Jacobite left advanced more slowly, hampered by boggy ground and a longer distance to cover.

Attempts to provoke the government infantry into firing prematurely failed, as Cumberland's troops maintained discipline. With the left wing stalled and reserves already depleted, the Jacobite formation began to collapse.

The Battle of Culloden resulted in devastating losses for the Jacobite army and marked the effective end of the 1745 Rising. Official government returns recorded 50 soldiers killed, 259 wounded, and one missing, while Jacobite deaths are commonly estimated at 1,200 to 1,500 men, with many more captured in the immediate aftermath. The National Trust for Scotland notes that the battle was fierce, with around 1,600 men killed in less than an hour, the vast majority of them Jacobites.

Despite these losses, the Jacobite force did not collapse instantly. Surviving units retreated toward Inverness, Fort Augustus, and Ruthven Barracks, where thousands of men remained under arms. Contemporary accounts suggest morale was initially held, and a continued campaign was still possible.

However, this opportunity was lost when Charles Edward Stuart issued orders at Ruthven Barracks instructing the army to disperse until he could return with French support. By April 18, 1746, most Jacobite forces had disbanded, and within the remaining days, units surrendered or fled abroad. Culloden thus proved decisive not only because of its casualties, but because it brought the Jacobite military effort to an irreversible close.

After the battle, Charles Edward Stuart fled westward towards the Hebrides, accompanied by a small group of supporters. By April 20, he reached Arisaig, before sailing to Benbecula in the Outer Hebrides. Over the following months, Charles moved between the islands of Scalpay, Harris, and Stornoway, constantly pursued by government forces and threatened by local landowners tempted by the £30,000 reward for his capture.

During this period, Charles was famously assisted by Flora Macdonald, who helped him escape to Skye. On September 19, 1746, after five months on the run, Charles returned to Loch nan Uamh at Borrodale, where he boarded two small French ships bound for France. He would never return to Scotland, marking the final end of the Jacobite challenge led by Bonnie Prince Charlie.

The government's response to the Jacobite defeat was swift and severe. In the days following the battle, government troops searched the battlefield, and wounded Jacobites were killed. Large-scale seizures followed, with over 20,000 head of livestock driven off and sold at Fort Augustus.

Jacobite prisoners were transported south to England, where many were held on prison hulks or at Tilbury Fort, and executions took place in Carlisle, York, and Kennington Common. In total, 120 ordinary men were executed, while hundreds more were transported to the British colonies or banished under the Traitors Transported Act 1746. Of the 3,471 prisoners recorded, the fate of 648 remains unknown.

In the years that followed, the British government introduced legislation to dismantle the traditional clan system and integrate the Scottish Highlands more fully into Britain. The Heritable Jurisdictions (Scotland) Act 1746 removed judicial powers from clan chiefs, estates belonging to Jacobite supporters were confiscated, and Highland dress , including tartan, was banned except for use in the British Army. These measures permanently transformed Highland society and ensured that the Battle of Culloden marked not only the end of the Jacobite Rising but also a profound turning point in Scottish history.

One of the most recognisable features is the 20-foot memorial cairn, erected in 1881, along with headstones marking the mass graves of the clans. Today, the battlefield is legally protected and cared for by the National Trust for Scotland, ensuring that Culloden Moor remains both a place of remembrance and a valuable historical landscape for future generations.